Characterization of Phosphorylation Status and Kinase Activity of Src Family Kinases Expressed in Cell-Based and Cell-Free Protein Expression Systems.

The production of heterologous proteins is an important procedure for biologists in basic and applied sciences. A variety of cell-based and cell-free protein expression systems are available to achieve this. The expression system must be selected carefully, especially for target proteins that require post-translational modifications. In this study, human Src family kinases were prepared using six different protein expression systems: 293 human embryonic kidney cells, Escherichia coli, and cell-free expression systems derived from rabbit reticulocytes, wheat germ, insect cells, or Escherichia coli. The phosphorylation status of each kinase was analyzed by Phos-tag SDS-PAGE. The kinase activities were also investigated. In the eukaryotic systems, multiple phosphorylated forms of the expressed kinases were observed. In the rabbit reticulocyte lysate system and 293 cells, differences in phosphorylation status between the wild-type and kinase-dead mutants were observed. Whether the expressed kinase was active depended on the properties of both the kinase and each expression system. In the prokaryotic systems, Src and Hck were expressed in autophosphorylated active forms. Clear differences in post-translational phosphorylation among the protein expression systems were revealed. These results provide useful information for preparing functional proteins regulated by phosphorylation.

Deciphering the Molecular Details of the Lipoxin Formation Mechanism in the 5(S),15(S)-DiHpETE Biosynthetic Pathway Catalyzed by Reticulocyte 15-Lipoxygenase-1.

Chronic inflammation is now widely recognized to play important roles in many commonly occurring diseases, including COVID-19. The resolution response to this chronic inflammation is an active process governed by specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) like the lipid mediators known as lipoxins. The biosynthesis of lipoxins is catalyzed by several lipoxygenases (LOXs) from arachidonic acid. However, the molecular details of the mechanisms involved are not well known yet. In this paper, we have combined molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations to analyze how reticulocyte 15-LOX-1 catalyzes the production of lipoxins from 5(S),15(S)-diHpETE. Our results indicate that the dehydration mechanism from 5(S),15(S)-diHpETE, via the formation of an epoxide, presents huge energy barriers even though it was one of the two a priori synthetic proposals. This result is compatible with the fact that no epoxide has been directly detected as an intermediate in the catalytic formation of lipoxins from 5(S),15(S)-diHpETE. Conversely, the oxygenation of 5(S),15(S)-diHpETE at C14 is feasible because there is an open channel connecting the protein surface with this carbon atom, and the energy barrier for oxygen addition through this channel is small. The analysis of the following steps of this mechanism, leading to the corresponding hydroperoxide at the 15-LOX-1 active site, indicates that the oxygenation mechanism will lead to the formation of lipoxinB4 after the final action of a reductase. In contrast, our calculations are in agreement with experiments that lipoxinA4 cannot derive from 5(S),15(S)-diHpETE by either of the two proposed mechanisms and that 5(S),15(S)-diHETE is not an intermediate of lipoxin biosynthesis catalyzed by 15-LOX-1.

A Way Forward for Culturing Plasmodium vivax.

Trager and Jensen established a method for culturing Plasmodium falciparum, a breakthrough for malaria research worldwide. Since then, multiple attempts to establish Plasmodium vivax in continuous culture have failed. Unlike P. falciparum, which can invade all aged erythrocytes, P. vivax is restricted to reticulocytes. Thus, a constant supply of reticulocytes is considered critical for continuous P. vivax growth in vitro. A critical question remains why P. vivax selectively invades reticulocytes? What do reticulocytes offer to P. vivax that is not present in mature erythrocytes? One possibility is protection from oxidative stress by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). Here, we also suggest supplements to the media and procedures that may reduce oxidative stress and, as a result, establish a system for the continuous culture of P. vivax.

Hereditary spherocytosis is associated with decreased pyruvate kinase activity due to impaired structural integrity of the red blood cell membrane.

Hereditary spherocytosis (HS) is characterised by increased osmotic fragility and enhanced membrane loss of red blood cells (RBC) due to defective membrane protein complexes. In our diagnostic laboratory, we observed that pyruvate kinase (PK) activity in HS was merely slightly elevated with respect to the amount of reticulocytosis. In order to evaluate whether impaired PK activity is a feature of HS, we retrospectively analysed laboratory data sets from 172 unrelated patients with HS, hereditary elliptocytosis (HE), glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) or PK deficiency, sickle cell or haemoglobin C disease, or ß-thalassaemia minor. Results from linear regression analysis provided proof that PK activity decreases with rising reticulocyte counts in HS (R2  = 0·15; slope = 9·09) and, less significantly, in HE (R2  = 0·021; slope = 8·92) when compared with other haemolytic disorders (R2  ≥ 0·65; slopes ≥ 78·6). Reticulocyte-adjusted erythrocyte PK activity levels were significantly lower in HS and even declined with increasing reticulocytes (R2  = 0·48; slope = -9·74). In this report, we describe a novel association between HS and decreased PK activity that is apparently caused by loss of membrane-bound PK due to impaired structural integrity of the RBC membrane and may aggravate severity of haemolysis in HS.

UBE2O remodels the proteome during terminal erythroid differentiation.

During terminal differentiation, the global protein complement is remodeled, as epitomized by erythrocytes, whose cytosol is ~98% globin. The erythroid proteome undergoes a rapid transition at the reticulocyte stage; however, the mechanisms driving programmed elimination of preexisting cytosolic proteins are unclear. We found that a mutation in the murine Ube2o gene, which encodes a ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme induced during erythropoiesis, results in anemia. Proteomic analysis suggested that UBE2O is a broad-spectrum ubiquitinating enzyme that remodels the erythroid proteome. In particular, ribosome elimination, a hallmark of reticulocyte differentiation, was defective in Ube2o-/- mutants. UBE2O recognized ribosomal proteins and other substrates directly, targeting them to proteasomes for degradation. Thus, in reticulocytes, the induction of ubiquitinating factors may drive the transition from a complex to a simple proteome.

UBE2O is a quality control factor for orphans of multiprotein complexes.

Many nascent proteins are assembled into multiprotein complexes of defined stoichiometry. Imbalances in the synthesis of individual subunits result in orphans. How orphans are selectively eliminated to maintain protein homeostasis is poorly understood. Here, we found that the conserved ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBE2O directly recognized juxtaposed basic and hydrophobic patches on unassembled proteins to mediate ubiquitination without a separate ubiquitin ligase. In reticulocytes, where UBE2O is highly up-regulated, unassembled α-globin molecules that failed to assemble with ß-globin were selectively ubiquitinated by UBE2O. In nonreticulocytes, ribosomal proteins that did not engage nuclear import factors were targets for UBE2O. Thus, UBE2O is a self-contained quality control factor that comprises substrate recognition and ubiquitin transfer activities within a single protein to efficiently target orphans of multiprotein complexes for degradation.

Residual pyruvate kinase activity in PKLR-deficient erythroid precursors of a patient suffering from severe haemolytic anaemia.

OBJECTIVE: Here, we present a 7-year-old patient suffering from severe haemolytic anaemia. The most common cause of chronic hereditary non-spherocytic haemolytic anaemia is red blood cell pyruvate kinase (PK-R) deficiency. Because red blood cells rely solely on glycolysis to generate ATP, PK-R deficiency can severely impact energy supply and cause reduction in red blood cell lifespan. We determined the underlying cause of the anaemia and investigated how erythroid precursors in the patient survive. METHODS: PK activity assays, Western blot and Sanger sequencing were employed to determine the underlying cause of the anaemia. Patient erythroblasts were cultured and reticulocytes were isolated to determine PK-R and PKM2 contribution to glycolytic activity during erythrocyte development. RESULTS: We found a novel homozygous mutation (c.583G>A) in the PK-R coding gene (PKLR). Although this mutation did not influence PKLR mRNA production, no PK-R protein could be detected in the red blood cells nor in its precursors. In spite of the absence of PK-R, the reticulocytes of the patient exhibited 20% PK activity compared with control. Western blotting revealed that patient erythroid precursors, like controls, express residual PKM2. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that PKM2 rescues glycolysis in PK-R-deficient erythroid precursors.

RNA G-Quadruplex Invasion and Translation Inhibition by Antisense γ-Peptide Nucleic Acid Oligomers.

We have examined the abilities of three complementary γ-peptide nucleic acid (γPNA) oligomers to invade an RNA G-quadruplex and potently inhibit translation of a luciferase reporter transcript containing the quadruplex-forming sequence (QFS) within its 5'-untranslated region. All three γPNA oligomers bind with low nanomolar affinities to an RNA oligonucleotide containing the QFS. However, while all probes inhibit translation with low to midnanomolar IC50 values, the γPNA designed to hybridize to the first two G-tracts of the QFS and adjacent 5'-overhanging nucleotides was 5-6 times more potent than probes directed to either the 3'-end or internal regions of the target at 37 °C. This position-dependent effect was eliminated after the probes and target were preincubated at an elevated temperature prior to translation, demonstrating that kinetic effects exert significant control over quadruplex invasion and translation inhibition. We also found that antisense γPNAs exhibited similarly potent effects against luciferase reporter transcripts bearing QFS motifs having G2, G3, or G4 tracts. Finally, our results indicate that γPNA oligomers exhibit selectivity and/or potency higher than those of other antisense molecules such as standard PNA and 2'-OMe RNA previously reported to target G-quadruplexes in RNA.

[Screening of Organisms Producing Inhibitors of 15-Lipoxygenase Among Micromycetes.]

The effects of extracts from the mycelium of Lecanicilium lecaniiNo.169, Beauveria fellina No.7 and Beauveria bassianaNo.15 on the activity of 15-lpoxygenase (15-LO) recovered from rat reticulocytes was investigated. The activity of 15-LO was determined by oxidation of linolic acid. The extract from the mycelium of the fungal complex was shown to inhibit 15-LO (IC50 of 12 mcg/ml). The inhibitory effect of the combined extract on 15-LO was due to the substances recovered from Lecanicilium lecanii No.169. The extract fractions responsible for the activity were determined and the compounds containing the fractions were identified. They proved to be 10 - 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol and genistein, a flavonoid from fraction 11. The possible role of the inhibitory effect of the compounds on 15-LO in the antiatherosclerotic activity of the fungal extract is discussed.

Inhibition of Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)-interacting Kinase (MNK) Preferentially Affects Translation of mRNAs Containing Both a 5'-Terminal Cap and Hairpin.

The MAPK-interacting kinases 1 and 2 (MNK1 and MNK2) are activated by extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) or p38 in response to cellular stress and extracellular stimuli that include growth factors, cytokines, and hormones. Modulation of MNK activity affects translation of mRNAs involved in the cell cycle, cancer progression, and cell survival. However, the mechanism by which MNK selectively affects translation of these mRNAs is not understood. MNK binds eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) and phosphorylates the cap-binding protein eIF4E. Using a cell-free translation system from rabbit reticulocytes programmed with mRNAs containing different 5'-ends, we show that an MNK inhibitor, CGP57380, affects translation of only those mRNAs that contain both a cap and a hairpin in the 5'-UTR. Similarly, a C-terminal fragment of human eIF4G-1, eIF4G(1357-1600), which prevents binding of MNK to intact eIF4G, reduces eIF4E phosphorylation and inhibits translation of only capped and hairpin-containing mRNAs. Analysis of proteins bound to m(7)GTP-Sepharose reveals that both CGP and eIF4G(1357-1600) decrease binding of eIF4E to eIF4G. These data suggest that MNK stimulates translation only of mRNAs containing both a cap and 5'-terminal RNA duplex via eIF4E phosphorylation, thereby enhancing the coupled cap-binding and RNA-unwinding activities of eIF4F.

Potent and selective inhibitors of human reticulocyte 12/15-lipoxygenase as anti-stroke therapies.

A key challenge facing drug discovery today is variability of the drug target between species, such as with 12/15-lipoxygenase (12/15-LOX), which contributes to ischemic brain injury, but its human and rodent isozymes have different inhibitor specificities. In the current work, we have utilized a quantitative high-throughput (qHTS) screen to identify compound 1 (ML351), a novel chemotype for 12/15-LOX inhibition that has nanomolar potency (IC50 = 200 nM) against human 12/15-LOX and is protective against oxidative glutamate toxicity in mouse neuronal HT22 cells. In addition, it exhibited greater than 250-fold selectivity versus related LOX isozymes, was a mixed inhibitor, and did not reduce the active-site ferric ion. Lastly, 1 significantly reduced infarct size following permanent focal ischemia in a mouse model of ischemic stroke. As such, this represents the first report of a selective inhibitor of human 12/15-LOX with demonstrated in vivo activity in proof-of-concept mouse models of stroke.

Pharmacological inhibition of polo like kinase 2 (PLK2) does not cause chromosomal damage or result in the formation of micronuclei.

Polo like kinase 2 (PLK2) phosphorylates α-synuclein and is considered a putative therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease. Several lines of evidence indicate that PLK2 is involved with proper centriole duplication and cell cycle regulation, inhibition of which could impact chromosomal integrity during mitosis. The objectives of the series of experiments presented herein were to assess whether specific inhibition of PLK2 is genotoxic and determine if PLK2 could be considered a tractable pharmacological target for Parkinson's disease. Several selective PLK2 inhibitors, ELN 582175 and ELN 582646, and their inactive enantiomers, ELN 582176 and ELN 582647, did not significantly increase the number of micronuclei in the in vitro micronucleus assay. ELN 582646 was administered to male Sprague Dawley rats in an exploratory 14-day study where flow cytometric analysis of peripheral blood identified a dose-dependent increase in the number of micronucleated reticulocytes. A follow-up investigative study demonstrated that ELN 582646 administered to PLK2 deficient and wildtype mice significantly increased the number of peripheral micronucleated reticulocytes in both genotypes, suggesting that ELN 582646-induced genotoxicity is not through the inhibition of PLK2. Furthermore, significant reduction of retinal phosphorylated α-synuclein levels was observed at three non-genotoxic doses, additional data to suggest that pharmacological inhibition of PLK2 is not the cause of the observed genotoxicity. These data, in aggregate, indicate that PLK2 inhibition is a tractable CNS pharmacological target that does not cause genotoxicity at doses and exposures that engage the target in the sensory retina.

Acute effect of ethanol on hepatic reticular G6Pase and Ca2+ pool.

BACKGROUND: Hydrolysis of glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) via glucose 6-phosphatase (G6Pase) enlarges the reticular Ca(2+) pool of the hepatocyte. Exposure of liver cells to ethanol (EtOH) impairs reticular Ca(2+) homeostasis. The present study investigated the effect of acute EtOH administration on G6P-supported Ca(2+) accumulation in liver cells. METHODS: Total microsomes were isolated from rat livers acutely perfused with varying doses of EtOH (0.01, 0.1, or 1% v/v) for 8 minutes. Calcium uptake was assessed by (45) Ca redistribution. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) formation was measured as an indicator of G6Pase hydrolytic activity. RESULTS: G6P-supported Ca(2+) uptake decreased in a manner directly proportional to the dose of EtOH infused in the liver, whereas Ca(2+) uptake via SERCA pumps was decreased by ~25% only at the highest dose of alcohol administered. The reduced accumulation of Ca(2+) within the microsomes resulted in a smaller inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))-induced Ca(2+) release. Kinetic assessment of IP(3) and passive Ca(2+) release indicated a faster mobilization in microsomes from EtOH-treated livers, suggesting alcohol-induced alteration of Ca(2+) releasing mechanisms. Pretreatment of livers with chloromethiazole (CMZ) or dithiothreitol (DTT), but not 4-methyl-pyrazole prevented the inhibitory effect of EtOH on G6Pase activity and Ca(2+) homeostasis. CONCLUSIONS: Liver G6Pase activity and IP(3) -mediated Ca(2+) release are rapidly inhibited following acute (8 minutes) exposure to EtOH, thus compromising the ability of the endoplasmic reticulum to dynamically modulate Ca(2+) homeostasis in the hepatocyte. The protective effect of CMZ and DTT suggests that the inhibitory effect of EtOH is mediated through its metabolism via reticular cyP4502E1 and consequent free radicals formation.

Efficient monitoring of in vivo pig-a gene mutation and chromosomal damage: summary of 7 published studies and results from 11 new reference compounds.

The ability to effectively monitor gene mutation and micronucleated reticulocyte (MN-RET) frequency in short-term and repeated dosing schedules was investigated using the recently developed flow cytometric Pig-a mutation assay and flow cytometric micronucleus analysis. Eight reference genotoxicants and three presumed nongenotoxic compounds were studied: chlorambucil, melphalan, thiotepa, cyclophosphamide, azathioprine, 2-acetylaminofluorene, hydroxyurea, methyl methanesulfonate, o-anthranilic acid, sulfisoxazole, and sodium chloride. These experiments extend previously published results with seven other chemicals. Male Sprague Dawley rats were treated via gavage for 3 or 28 consecutive days with several dose levels of each chemical up to the maximum tolerated dose. Blood samples were collected at several time points up to day 45 and were analyzed for Pig-a mutation with a dual-labeling method that facilitates mutant cell frequency measurements in both total erythrocytes and the reticulocyte subpopulation. An immunomagnetic separation technique was used to increase the efficiency of scoring mutant cells. Blood samples collected on day 4, and day 29 for the 28-day study, were evaluated for MN-RET frequency. The three nongenotoxicants did not induce Pig-a or MN-RET responses. All genotoxicants except hydroxyurea increased the frequency of Pig-a mutant reticulocytes and erythrocytes. Significant increases in MN-RET frequency were observed for each of the genotoxicants at both time points. Whereas the highest Pig-a responses tended to occur in the 28-day studies, when total dose was greatest, the highest induction of MN-RET was observed in the 3-day studies, when dose per day was greatest. There was no clear relationship between the maximal Pig-a response of a given chemical and its corresponding maximal MN-RET response, despite the fact that both endpoints were determined in the same cell lineage. Taken with other previously published results, these data demonstrate the value of integrating Pig-a and micronucleus endpoints into in vivo toxicology studies, thereby providing information about mutagenesis and chromosomal damage in the same animals from which toxicity, toxicokinetics, and metabolism data are obtained.

Methods applied to the study of protein arginine methylation.

Arginine methylation was discovered in the mid-1960s. About 15 years ago, the first protein arginine N-methyltransferase (PRMT) enzyme was described. The PRMT family now stands at nine members, and these enzymes play a key role in regulating a multitude of cellular events. The majority of the PRMTs have been deleted in mice, thus providing genetically tractable systems for in vivo and cell-based studies. These studies have implicated this posttranslational modification in chromatin remodeling, transcriptional regulation, RNA processing, protein/RNA trafficking, signal transduction, and DNA repair. In this chapter, we introduce different approaches that have been developed to assess protein arginine methylation levels and characterize PRMT substrates.

A fluorimetric assay for human reticulocyte 15-lipoxygenase-1 activity.

A rapid and sensitive fluorescence-based assay for the determination of human 15-lipoxygenase-1 (15-LOX-1) activity is described in this article. The assay utilizes the ability of 15-LOX-1-generated lipid hydroperoxides to oxidize nonfluorescent dihydrorhodamine 123, producing the highly fluorescent dye rhodamine 123. Formation of rhodamine 123 can be monitored through fluorescence spectroscopy using Ex/Em of 500 nm/536 nm. The IC(50) values of three well-known 15-LOX-1 inhibitors, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, quercetin, and fisetin, were evaluated in 96- and 384-well formats, and they conform to previously reported data. We believe this assay can be broadly used for the discovery of novel lipoxygenase inhibitors.

The lipoprotein lipase (LPL) S447X gain of function variant involves increased mRNA translation.

OBJECTIVE: A common gain-of-function LPL variant, LPLS447X, has favorable clinical features and involves a C→G base change at nucleotide 1595 of the LPL cDNA, along with a haplotype, which includes other non-coding SNPs. The mechanism for the LPL gain-in-function is not clear. LPL translation is regulated by epinephrine by an RNA-protein complex, consisting of PKA subunits and an A kinase anchoring protein (AKAP), which targets the 3'UTR. METHODS: To examine LPL translation of the LPLS447X variant, in vitro translation of LPL mRNA constructs was studied in the presence of cytoplasmic extracts from 3T3-F442A adipocytes treated with/without epinephrine. RESULTS: When the C→G base change at nucleotide 1595 was introduced, LPL mRNA was less susceptible to inhibition by the adipocyte extract. Similarly, a lessened susceptibility to translation inhibition occurred when the complete haplotype was constructed in the full-length 3.6 kb LPL mRNA, when an irrelevant coding sequence was introduced into the LPL mRNA construct, and in response to the use of components of the RNA binding complex (PKA C and R subunits, and KH region of AKAP149). CONCLUSION: These studies suggest that the LPLS447X gain of function may be due to the base change in the LPL mRNA resulting in a decreased susceptibility to translational inhibition.

A comprehensive panel of turn-on caspase biosensors for investigating caspase specificity and caspase activation pathways.

Caspases play a central role in apoptosis, differentiation, and proliferation, and represent important therapeutic targets for treating cancer and inflammatory disorders. Toward the goal of developing new tools to probe caspase substrate cleavage specificity as well as to systematically interrogate caspase activation pathways, we have constructed and investigated a comprehensive panel of caspase biosensors with a split-luciferase enabled bioluminescent read out. We first interrogated the panel of caspase biosensors for substrate cleavage specificity of caspase 1-10 in widely utilized in vitro translation systems, namely, rabbit reticulocyte lysate (RRL) and wheat germ extract (WGE). Commercial RRL was found to be unsuitable for investigating caspase specificity, owing to surprising levels of endogenous caspase activity, while specificity profiles of the caspase sensors in WGE agree very well with traditional peptide probes. The full panel of biosensors was utilized for studying caspase activation and inhibition in several mammalian cytosolic extracts, clearly demonstrating that they can be utilized to directly monitor activation or inhibition of procaspase 3/7. Furthermore, the complete panel of caspase biosensors also provided new insights into caspase activation pathways wherein we surprisingly discovered the activation of procaspase 3/7 by caspase 4/5.

Elongation index of erythrocytes, study of activity of chosen erythrocyte enzymes, and the levels of glutathione, malonyldialdehyde in polycythemia vera (PV).

The principal aim of the study was to investigate rheological properties of erythrocytes obtained from patients admitted to the clinic, and diagnosed with polycythemia vera. The polycythemia vera diagnosis was based on the WHO criteria for polycythemia vera. Using a laser rheometer SSD Rheometer-Rheodyn, the elongation index of erythrocytes was determined, indicating an increased rigidity of the erythrocytes in this disease compared with the erythrocytes in healthy people. In order to explain (albeit partially) the reason for reduced elasticity, the erythrocytes of patients with polycythemia were studied for the activity of enzymes - glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and acetylcholinesterase membrane enzyme, as well as the levels of glutathione and malonyldialdehyde. The elevated activities of these enzymes, the glutathione level, and elevated ‰ of reticulocytes, indicated an increased pool of juvenile erythrocyte forms; furthermore, the elevated value of malonyldialdehyde may suggest a lipid peroxidative damage in certain pool of the erythrocyte membrane in blood circulation.